GLOSSARY

 

 

Adams, John As the nation's second president, Adams had to deal with deteriorating relations be­tween the United States and France. Conflicts be­tween the two countries were evident in the XYZ Affair and the "Quasi‑War" of 1798 to 1800.

 

Alien and Sedition Acts Four acts passed in 1798 de­signed to curb criticism of the federal government. Adopted during a period of conflict with France, the acts lengthened the period before an immigrant could obtain citizenship, gave the president power to deport dangerous aliens, and provided for the prosecution of those who wrote "false, scandalous and malicious" writings against the U.S. govern­ment.

 

Allies In World War I, the United States, Great Britain, France, and Russia, the alliance that op­posed and defeated the Central Powers of Germany and Austria‑Hungary and their allies; in World War II, primarily the United States, Great Britain, (free) France, and the Soviet Union that opposed and defeated the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan.

 

American Exceptionalism Notion that America houses biologically superior people and can spread democracy to the rest of the world. An intellectual foundation of expansion and racism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

 

American Federation of Labor A confederation of la­bor unions founded in 1886, it was composed mainly of skilled craft unions and was the first na­tional labor organization to survive and experience a degree of success, largely because of its conserva­tive leadership that accepted industrial capitalism.

 

American System (of Henry Clay) Henry Clay's pro­gram for the national economy, which included a protective tariff to stimulate industry, a national bank to provide credit, and federally funded inter­nal improvements to expand the market for farm products.

 

American System of Production The high cost of la­bor led to the establishment of a system of mass production through the manufacture of inter­changeable parts.

 

Anaconda Plan General Winfield Scott designed this strategic plan in the early days of the Civil War. to give direction to the Union war effort against the South. The plan advocated a full naval blockade of the South's coastline, a military campaign to gain control of the Mississippi River, and the placement of armies at key points in the South to squeeze-- like the Anaconda snake--the life out of the Con­federacy. In various‑ways, this plan helped inform overall Union strategy in militarily defeating the South.

 

Antifederalists These were opponents of the Con­stitution of 1787 who sought to continue the confederation of sovereign states and to keep power as close as possible to the people. In actual­ity, the Antifederalists were true federalists in seek­ing to balance powers among the states and the national government. Their confused identity may have cost them support in attempting to prevent ratification of the Constitution. See Federalists.

 

Antinomian Literally meaning against the laws of hu­man governance. Antinomians believed that once they had earned saving grace, God would offer them direct revelation by which to order the steps of their lives. As such, human institutions, such as churches and government, were no longer neces­sary. Mainline Puritans believed Antinomianism would produce only social chaos and destroy the Bay Colony's mission, so they repudiated and even exiled prominent persons like Anne Hutchinson, who advocated such doctrines.

 

Axis Powers In World War II, the alliance of German and Italy, and later Japan.

 

Bank of the United States A central bank, chartered by the federal government in 1791. Proposed by Alexander Hamilton, the bank collected taxes, held government funds, and regulated state banks. The bank's charter expired in 1811. A second Bank of the United States was created in 1816. See Second Bank of the United States.

 

Bay of Pigs Fiasco A plan to assassinate Cuban leader Fidel Castro and liberate Cuba with a trained mili­tary force of political exiles. The limited 1~61 inva­sion was an unmitigated military failure and actu­ally strengthened Castro's position in Cuba.

 

Beat Generation A cultural style and artistic move­ment of the 1950s that rejected traditional Ameri­can family life and material values and celebrated African‑American culture. They tapped an under­ground dissatisfaction with mainstream American culture.

 

Big Stick Diplomacy The proclaimed foreign policy of Theodore Roosevelt, it was based on the proverb, "Speak softly and carry a big stick," and advocated the threat of force to achieve the United States' goals, especially in the Western Hemisphere.

 

Bill of Rights The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which protect the rights of individu­als from the powers of the national government. Congress and the states adopted the ten amend­ments in 1791.

 

Billy Yank This appellation was used to refer to com­mon soldiers serving in Union armies during the Civil War. See Johnny Reb.

 

Birds of Passage Immigrants who never intended to make the United States their home. Unable to make a living in their native countries, they came to America, worked and saved, and returned home. About 20 to 30 percent of immigrants returned home.

 

Black Codes Laws passed by Southern state legisla­tures during Reconstruction, while Congress was out of session. These laws limited the rights of for­mer slaves and led Congress to ratify the Four­teenth Amendment.

 

Black Power A rallying cry for more militant blacks advocated by younger leaders like Stokely Carmichael and H. Rap Brown, beginning in the mid‑1960s. It called for African Americans to form their own economic, political, and cultural institu­tions.

 

Black Tuesday October 29,1929, the day of the stock market crash that initiated the Great Depression.

 

Bonus Army Group of unemployed World War I vet­erans who marched on Washington, D.C., in June 1932 to ask‑for immediate payment of their war pensions.

 

Brain Trust Close advisors .to~resident Franklin De­lano Roosevelt during the early days of his first term whose policy suggestions influenced much New Deal legislation.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Supreme Court decision of 1954 that overtumed the "sepa­rate but equal doctrine" that justified Jim Crow laws. Chief Justice Earl Warren argued that "sepa­rate educational facilities are inherently unequal."

 

Burr, Aaron Thomas Jefferson's first vice president, who killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel in 1804.

 

Cabinet This term refers to the heads of the executive departments.

 

Calhoun, John C. As vice president, Calhoun anony­mously expounded the doctrine of nullification, which held that states could prevent the enforce­ment of a federal law within their boundaries.

 

Calvinism Broadly influential Protestant theology emanating from the French theologian John Calvin, who fled to Switzerland, where he reordered life in the community of Geneva according to his concep­tion of the Bible. Calvinism emphasized the power and omnipotence of God and the importance of seeking to earn saving grace and salvation, even though God had already determined (the concept of predestination) who would be eternally saved or damned.

 

Camp David Accords An historic 1979 peace agree­ment negotiated between Egypt and Israel at the U.S. presidential retreat at Camp David, Maryland. Under the pact, Israel agreed to return captured territory to Egypt and to negotiate Palestinian autonomy in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

 

Capital Punishment During the early nineteenth cen­tury, a movement arose to end the death penalty.

 

Carpetbaggers People who moved to the South dur­ing or following the Civil War and became active in politics, they helped to bring Republican control of southern state governments during Reconstruction and were bitterly resented by most white Southern­ers.

 

Carter, Jimmy Georgia governor in 1970, and presi­dent in 1976. His progressive racial views reflected an emergent South less concerned with racial dis­tinctions and more concerned with economic devel­opment and political power.

 

Cautious Revolutionaries Sometimes called reluctant revolutionaries, these leaders lacked a strong trust in the people to rise above their own self‑interest and provide for enlightened legislative policies (see public virtue). At the time of the American Revolu­tion, they argued in favor of forms of government that could easily check the popular will. To assure political stability, they believed that political deci­sion making should be in the hands of society's proven social and economic elite. John Dickinson, John Adams (very much an eager revolutionary), and Robert Morris might be described as cautious revolutionaries. See radical revolutiorlaries.

 

Central Powers In World War I, Germany and Aus­tria‑Hungary and their allies.

 

Channing, William Ellery America's leading expo­nent of religious liberalism, Channing was one of the founders of American Unitarianism.

 

The China Lobby An informal group of media lead­ers and political pundits who criticized the commu­nist takeover of China, claiming the United States could have prevented it.

 

City upon a Hill Phrase from John Winthrop's ser­mon, "A Model of Christian Charity," in which he challenged his fellow Puritans to build a model, ideal community in America that would serve as an example of how the rest of the world should order its existence. Here was the beginning of the idea of America as a special, indeed exceptional society, therefore worthy of emulation by others. The con­cept of American exceptionalism has dominated American history and culture down to the present.

 

Civil Rights Act of 1964 Landmark legislation that prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, sex, religion, or national origin in employment and public facilities such as hotels, restaurants, and playgrounds. It established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

 

Clay, Henry As Speaker of the House of Representa­tives, Senator, and unsuccessful candidate for the presidency, he was an advocate of the "American System," which called for a protective tariff, a na­tional bank, and federally funded internal improve­ments. See American system (of Henry Clay).

 

Colonization The effort to encourage masters to vol­untarily emancipate their slaves and to resettle free blacks in Africa.

 

Columbian Exchange The process of transferring plants, animals, foods, diseases, wealth, and culture between Europe and the Americas, beginning at the time of Christopher Columbus and continuing throughout the era of exploration and expansion. The exchange often resulted in the devastation of Native American peoples and cultures, so much so that the process is sometimes referred to as the "Columbian collision."

 

Committee on Public Information (CPI) U.S. propa­ganda agency of World War I.

 

Committees of Correspondence As American leaders became increasingly anxious about a perceived British imperial conspiracy to deprive them of their liberties, they set up networks of communication among the colonies. Beginning in 1773 colonial as­semblies began to appoint committees of corre­spondence to warn each other about possible abuses. In some colonies, such as Massachusetts, lo­cal communities also organized such committees, all with the intention of being vigilant against arbi­trary acts from British officials.

 

Common Sense This best‑selling pamphlet by Thomas Paine, first published in 1776, denounced the British monarchy, called for American indepen­dence, and encouraged the adoption of republican forms of government. Paine's bold words thus helped crack the power of reconciliationist leaders in the Second Continental Congress who did not believe the colonies could stand up to British arms and survive as an independent nation.

 

Compromise of 1877 A bargain made between south­ern Democrats and Republican candidate Ruther­ford B. Hayes after the disputed presidential elec­tion of 1876. The southern Democrats pledged to let Hayes take office in return for his promise to with­draw the remaining federal troops from the south­ern states. The removal of the last troops in 1877 marked the end of Reconstruction.

 

Coney Island Popular site of New York amusement parks opening in 1890s, attracting working class Americans with rides and games celebrating aban­don and instant gratification.

 

Copperheads Not every person living in the North during the Civil War favored making war against the Confederacy. Such persons came to be identi­fied as Copperheads. Often affiliated with the De­mocratic party and residing in the Midwest, Cop­perheads favored a negotiated peace settlement that would allow the South to leave the Union. Some of them were arbitrarily thrown into jail without proper habeas corpus proceedings after pub­licly advocating their views.

 

Court Packing President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's controversial plan to appoint Supreme Court jus­tices who were sympathetic to his views, by offer­ing retirement benefits to the sitting justices.

 

Coverture Coverture is closely connected with patri­archy because this concept contends that the legal identity of women is subordinated first in their fa­thers and, then, in their husbands, as the sanctioned heads of households. See patriarchal.

 

Coxey's Arrny A movement founded by Jacob S. Coxey to help the unemployed during the depres­sion of the 1890s, it brought out‑of‑work people to Washington, D.C., to demand that the federal government provide jobs and inflate the currency.

 

Crandall, Prudence A Quaker schoolteacher, Cran­dall sparked controversy when she opened a school for the education of free blacks.

 

Cuban Missile Crisis The conflict in 1962 prompted by Soviet installation of missiles on Cuba and Pres­ident Kennedy's announcement to the American Public. After days of genuine fe~ar on both sides, the two sides negotiated a whereby the Soviet Union removed the missiles and the United States pledged not to invade Cuba.

 

Cuffe, Paul An African‑American sea captain, Cuffe led the first experiment in colonization when he transported 38 free blacks to Sierra Leone in 1815.

 

Dartmouth v. Woodward A landmark 1819 Supreme Court decision protecting contracts. In the case, Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the charters of business corporations are contracts and thus pro­tected under the U.S. Constitution.

 

Dawes Severalty Act Legislation passed in 1887 to au­thorize the president to divide tribal land and dis­tribute it to individual Native Americans, it gave 160 acres to each head of the household in an at­tempt to assimilate Indians into citizenship.

 

D‑Day June 6, 1944, the day Allied forces landed on the beaches of Normandy, in France, leading to the defeat of Germany.

 

Declension A term associated with the Massachusetts Bay Colony, referring to the declining zeal of later generations or movement away from the utopian ideals of those Puritan leaders, such as John Winthrop, who founded the colony. As an example of declension, see half‑way covenant.

 

Deregulation An economic policy, begun during the administration of Jimmy Carter, which freed air and surface transportation, the savings and loan in­dustry, natural gas, and other industries from many government economic controls.

 

Detente A relaxation of tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union that was begun by President Richard M. Nixon.

 

Diem, Ngo Dinh Although a Catholic in a Buddhist nation and a leader with no popular charm, the American government manufactured Diem's 1956 election because of his anticommunist views. The American government gradually realized Diem's lack of popular support and stood by when he was assassinated in 1963.

 

Dien Bien Phu Vietminh siege of 13,000 French sol­diers in 1954 at a remote military outpost. The French surrender led to the 1956 elections designed to reunify Vietnam.

 

Divine Right Rule Long‑held belief that monarchs were God's political stewards on earth. Because their authority to rule supposedly came directly from God, the decision making of monarchs was held to be infallible and thus could not be ques­tioned. Some of England's Stuart kings in the sev­enteenth century viewed themselves as ruling by divine right, a position that numerous subjects re­jected, even to the point of ~ civil war in the 1640s and the beheading of Charles I in 1649.

 

Dix, Dorothea The leader of efforts to reform the treatment of the mentally ill.

 

Douglass, Frederick The nation's most famous fugitive slave and African‑American abolitionist, Douglass supported political action against slavery.

 

Dumbbell tenement Apartment buildings built to minimal codes and designed to cram the largest number of people into the smallest amount of space. The dumbbell indentation in the middle of the building, although unsightly, conformed to the

 

Tenement Reform Law of 1879 required all rooms to have access to light and air.

 

Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment In November 1775 John Murray, Lord Dunmore (Virginia's last royal governor), issued an emancipation proclamation that freed all slaves and indentured servants living in Virginia who were willing to bear arms against their rebellious masters. As many as 2000 slaves fled to the British banner, and some became mem­bers of Dunmore's Ethiopian regiment. With little training in arms, this regiment fared poorly in a battle with Virginia militia in December 1775. An outbreak of smallpox later killed many of the ex­-slaves who responded to Dunmore's proclamation.

 

Electric Trolley Public transportation for urban neighborhoods, using electric current from over­head wires. Between 1888 and 1902, 97 percent of urban transit mileage had been electrified.

 

Emancipation Proclamation President Abraham Lin­coln issued a preliminary proclamation in Septem­ber 1862 that all slaves would be declared free in those states that were still in rebellion against the Union at the beginning of 1863. Receiving no offi­cial response from the Confederacy, Lincoln an­nounced the Emancipation Proclamation on Janu­ary 1, 1863. All slaves in the rebellious Confederate states were to be forever free. However, slavery could continue to exist in border states that were not at war against the Union. Lincoln's Emancipa­tion Proclamation represented the beginning of the end of chattel slavery in the United States.

 

Embargo of 1807 An attempt to stop British and French interference with American shipping by prohibiting foreign trade.

 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo A poet and essayist, Emerson espoused a philosophy called transcendentalism, which emphasized self‑reliance and intuition.

 

Enclosure Movement As the demand for wool height­ened in England during the sixteenth century be­cause of the emerging textile industry, Parliament passed laws that allowed profit‑seeking landowners to fence in their open fields to raise more sheep. Thousands of peasants who, as renters, had been farming these lands for generations were evicted and thrown into poverty. Many moved to the cities, where as "sturdy beggas" they too often found little work. In time, some migrated to English colonies in America, where work opportunities were far more abundant.

 

Encomienda System The government in Spain gave away large tracts of conquered land in Spanish America, including whole villages of indigenous peoples, to court favorites, including many conquis­tadores. These new landlords, or encomenderos, were supposed to educate the natives and teach them the Roman Catholic faith. The system was rife with abuse, however. Landlords rarely offered much ed­ucation, preferring instead to exploit the labor of the local inhabitants, whom they treated like slaves.

 

Enlightenment A broadly influential philosophical and intellectual movement that began in Europe during the eighteenth century. The Enlightenment unleashed a tidal wave of new learning, especially in the sciences and mathematics, that helped pro­mote the notion that human beings, through the use of their reason, could solve society's problems. The Enlightenment era, as such, has also been called the "Age of Reason." Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were leading proponents of Enlightenment thinking in America.

 

Enumerated Goods Products grown or extracted from England's North American colonies that could be shipped only to England or other colonies within the empire. Goods on the first enumeration list included tobacco, indigo, and sugar. Later furs, molasses, and rice would be added to a growing list of products that the English colonies could not sell directly to foreign nations.

 

Equal Rights Amendment Proposed Constitutional amendment that would prohibit discrimination on the basis of gender.

 

Era of Good Feelings Phrase used to describe the years following the War of 1812, when one party, the Jeffersonian Republicans, dominated politics, and a spirit of nationalism characterized public policy.

 

Evangelical Revivalism (Revivals) A current of Protes­tant Christianity emphasizing personal conversion, repentance of sin, and the authority of Scripture.

 

The Fair Deal Failed 1948 legislative package pro­posed by President Truman. It included an expan­sion of Social Security, federal aid to education, a higher minimum wage, a national plan for medical insurance, and civil rights legislation for minorities.

 

Farewell Address In this 1796 statement, in which he expresses his intention not to run for a third term as president, George Washington warns of the dan­gers of party divisions, sectionalism, and perma­nent alliances with foreign nations.

 

Federal Reserve System The central banking system of the United States, established with passage of the Federal Reserve Act of 1913, charged with the re­sponsibility of managing the country's money sup­ply through such means as lowering or raising inter­est rates. A presidentially appointed board of seven members (the Federal Reserve Board) oversees the twelve regional banks of the Federal Reserve System.

 

Federalist Papers These 85 newspaper essays, written in support of ratification of the Constitution of 1787 in New York by James Madison, Alexander Hamil­ton, and John Jay, described the proposed plan of national government as a sure foundation for long­term political stability and enlightened legislation. Although having little effect on the ratification de­bate in New York, the papers soon became classics of political philosophy about the Constitution as the framework of federal government for the American republic.

 

Federalists In the campaign to ratify the Constitution of 1787, nationalists started referring to themselves as federalists, which conveyed the meaning that they were in favor of splitting authority between their proposed strong national government and the states. The confusion in terminology may have helped win some support among citizens worried about a powerful--and potentially tyrannical--na­tional government. Some leading nationalists of the 1780s became Federalists in the 1790s. See Antifeder­alists. The term also refers to a political party founded by Alexander Hamilton in the 1790s to support his economic program.

 

Finney, Charles Grandison The "father of modern~re­vivalism," Finney devised many techniques adopted by later revival preachers. He encouraged many women to participate actively in revival.

 

Fire‑eaters Radical leaders in the South during the years leading up to the Civil War, the fire‑eaters were persons who took an extreme pro‑slavery po­sition. They repeatedly expressed their desire to see slavery spread throughout the United States, and they used states' rights arguments to support their uncompromising position.

 

Fireside Chats Weekly radio addresses by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in which he explained his actions directly to the American people.

 

First 100 Days President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's first 100 days in of fice, when he proposed and Con­gress passed fifteen major bills that reshaped the U.S. economy.

 

First Continental Congress This body was the most important expression of intercolonial protest activ­ity up to 1774. Called in response to Parliament's Coercive Acts, the delegates met in Philadelphia for nearly two months. More radical delegates domi­nated the deliberations. Before dissolving itself, the Congress called for ongoing resistance, even mili­tary preparations to defend American communi­ties, and a second congress, should King and Par­liament not redress American grievances.

 

Flapper Term for a liberated woman who bucked conventional ideas of propriety in dress and man­ners during the 1920s.

 

Fourteen Points President Woodrow Wilson's for­mula for peace after World War I.

 

Free Soil Party An antislavery political party founded in 1848.

 

Freedmen's Bureau (Bureau of Refugees~ Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands) An organization estab­lished by Congress on March 3, 1865 to deal with the dislocations of the Civil War. It provided relief, helped settle disputes, and founded schools and hospitals.

 

Freedom of Information Act This law allows the public and press to request declassification of gov­ernment documents.

 

Freedom Riders Civil rights activists who in 1961 demonstrated that despite a federal ban on segre­gated travel on interstate buses, segregation pre­vailed in parts of the South.

 

Friedan, Betty Author of The Feminine Mystique, the. 1963 book that articulated the discontent among white middle‑class housewives in the "Baby Boom" era. She founded the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966.

 

Fugitive Slave Law The most controversial element of the Compromise of 1850, the Fugitive Slave Law provided for the return of runaway slaves to their masters.

 

Gabriel A Virginia slave and blacksmith who orga­nized an attempted assault against Richmond in 1800.

 

Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins Founder of the nation's first school to teach deaf mutes to read and write and communicate through hand signals.

 

Garrison, William Lloyd The leader of radical aboli­tionism, Garrison sought immediate freedom for slaves without compensation to their owners.

 

Goldwater, Barry Republican residential candidate in 1964, Goldwater spearheaded an emergent conservative drive out of the South and West. Unhappy with the nation's path toward~ liberalism, Goldwater called for more limited taxes, a reduction in legislation aiding farmers and organized labor, and a reduc­tion of federal spending.

 

Good Neighbor Policy During the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the U.S. policy of not interfering in the internal affairs of hemispheric neighbors.

 

Gorbachev, Mikhail The last leader of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev adopted policies of glastnost (po­litical liberalization) and7~zstroika (economic re­form).

 

Gospel of Wealth The belief that God ordains certain people to amass money and use it to further God's purposes, it justified the concentration of wealth as long as the rich used their money responsibly.

 

Grand Alliance In World War II, the alliance between the United States, Great Britain, and France.

 

Great Awakening Spilling over into the colonies from a wave of revivals in Europe, the Awakening placed renewed emphasis on vital religious faith, partially in reaction to more secular, rationalist thinking characterizing the Enlightenment. Begin­ning as scattered revivals in the 1720s, the Awaken­ing grew into a fully developed outpouring of reju­venated faith by the 1740s. Key figures included Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. The Awakening's legacy included more emphasis on personal choice, as opposed to state mandates about worship, in matters of religious faith.

 

Great Migration The mass movement of African Americans from the South to the North during World War I.

 

Great Society The liberal reform program of President Lyndon Johnson. The program included civil rights legislation, increased public spending to help the poor, Medicare and Medicaid programs, educational legislation, and liberalized immigration policies.

 

Greenback Party A political party founded in 1874 to promote the issuance of legal tender paper currency not backed by precious metals in order to inflate the money supply and relieve the suffering of people hurt by the era's deflation, most of its members merged with the Populist party.

 

Greenbacks To help fund the military forces used against the Confederacy during the Civil War, the federal Congress issued a paper currency known as greenbacks. Even though greenbacks had no back­ing in specie (hard currency), this currency held its value fairly well because of mounting confidence the Union would prevail in the war. See also specie.

 

Grimke, Angelina, and Sarah Born to a wealthy South Carolina slaveholding family, these sisters became leaders in the abolitionist and women's rights movements.

 

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Following two reported attacks on the U.S.S. Maddox in 1964, American president Lyndon B. Johnson asked for and received this authorization from Congress to "take all necessary measures" to repel attacks, prevent aggression, and protect American security. It allowed Johnson to act without Congressional authorization on military matters in Vietnam.

 

Half‑Way Covenant Realizing that many children of the Massachusetts Bay Colony's first generation were not actively seeking God's saving grace and full church membership, the question was how to keep the next generation of children active in church affairs. The solution, agreed to in 1662, was to permit the baptism of children and grandchil­dren of professing saints, thereby according them half‑way membership. Full church membership still would come only after individuals testified to a conversion experience. This compromise on stan­dards of membership was seen as a sign of declen­sion. See declension.

 

Hamilton, Alexander The first secretary of the treasury and a leader of the Federalist party. As secretary of the treasury, he devised a plan for repaying the nation's debts and promoting economic growth. This plan included funding and assumption of the national and state debts at face value, establishment of the Bank of the United States, and tariffs on imported goods. Hamilton died following a duel with Aaron Burr in 1804.

 

Harlem Renaissance Self‑conscious African American cultural, literary, and artistic movement centered in Harlem in New York City during the 1920s.

 

Hartford Convention Convention held in late 1814 and early 1815 by New Englanders opposed to the War of 1812, which recommended Constitutional amendments to weaken the power of the South and to restrict Congress's power to impose embargoes or declare war.

 

Haymarket Square riot A violent encounter between police and protestors in 1886 in Chicago, which led to the execution of four protest leaders, it scared the public with the specter of labor violence and demonstrated governments' support of industrial­ists over workers.

 

Headright As an economic incentive to encourage English to settle in Virginia and other English colonies during the seventeenth century, sponsor­ing parties would offer 50 acres of land per person to those who migrated or who paid for the passage of others willing to migrate to America. Because of Virginia's high death rate and difficult living condi­tions, headrights functioned as an inducement to help bolster the colony's low settlement rate.

 

Helper, Hinton Rowan The North Carolina‑born au­thor of The Impending Crisis of the South, a book that argued that slavery was incompatible with eco­nomic progress.

 

Hessians Six German principalities provided 30,000 soldiers to Great Britain to fight against the Ameri­can rebels during the War for Independence. More than half of these troops‑for‑hire came from Hesse­Cassel. Hessian thus would serve as the generic term for all German mercenaries fighting in the war, whether or not they came from Hesse‑Cassel.

 

Holy Experiment Tolerance of religious diversity was at the core of William Penn's vision for a colony in America. As such, the colony of Pennsylvania rep­resented a "holy experiment" for Penn. He encour­aged people of all faiths to live together in harmony and to maintain harmonious relations with Native Americans in the region. The residents of early Pennsylvania never fully embraced Penn's vision, but the colony was open to religious dissenters and became a model for the diversity that later charac­terized America.

 

Hooverizing Herbert Hoover's program as director of the Food Administration to conserve food during World War I.

 

Hoovervilles Shanty‑towns of the Great Depression, named after President Herbert Hoover.

 

House Un‑American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated subversive right‑ and left‑wing move­ments. During the Cold War, it was best known for its two investigations of the American film indus­try.

 

Howe, Samuel Gridley Founder of the nation's first school for the blind.

 

Hudson Highlands Strategy The British tried to exe­cute this strategy early in the War for American In­dependence but never successfully implemented it. The idea was to gain control of the Hudson River-­Lake Champlain corridor running north from New York City and south from Montreal, Canada. Had they done so, the effect would have been to cut off New England, the initial center of rebellion, from the rest of the colonies. New England could then have been reconquered in detail. The failure to co­ordinate the movements of British forces in 1776 and 1777 resulted in the capture of John Burgoyne's army at Saratoga, New York, in October 1m, which ended any attempt to snuff out the rebellion by retaking New England.

 

Hydraulic Society Defined by historian Donald Worster as "a social order based on the intensive manipulation of water and its products in an arid setting," it characterized the irrigated societies of the modern West, allowing for agricultural produc­tivity and a massive demographic shift westward.

 

Implied Powers The view that the national govem­ment's powers are not limited to those stated ex­plicitly in the U.S. Constitution.

 

Impressment The British practice of seizing seamen from American merchant ships and forcing them to serve in the British navy. Impressment was one of the causes of the War of 1812.

 

Imprisonment for Debt During the early nineteenth century, reformers succeeded in restricting impris­onment of debtors.

 

Indentured Servitude In an effort to entice English subjects to the colonies, parties would offer legal bonded contracts that would exchange the cost of passage across the Atlantic for up to seven years of labor in America. Indenture contracts also required masters to provide food, clothing, farm tools, and sometimes land when the term of bonded service had expired, thus allowing former servants the op­portunity to gain full economic independence in America.

 

Indulgences Redemption certificates pardoning per­sons from punishment in the afterlife that were be­ing sold by the Roman Catholic church. Martin Luther particularly condemned this practice in his Ninety‑five Theses, in bringing on the Protestant Reformation.

 

The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1890 book by Alfred Thayer Mahan that argued nations ex­pand their world power through foreign commerce and a strong navy. Strongly influenced American politicians who advocated expansion.

 

Initiative and Referendum A procedure that allows citizens to propose legislation through petitions, it was passed by numerous states at the turn of the century but rarely used until the 1970s.

 

Insanity Defense The legal principle that a criminal act should only be punished if the offender was fully capable of distinguishing right from wrong.

 

Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) The first federal regulatory agency, established by passage of the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887 to regulate the railroads. The ICC's powers were expanded to oversee other forms of transportation and commu­nication.

 

Iranian Hostage Crisis In November 1979, Iranian stu­dents seized the U.S. embassy compound in Tehran and held 52 Americans inside hostage for 444 days.

 

Jackson, Andrew As major general during the War of 1812, he defeated the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and a British army at the Battle of New Orleans. In 1818, he led an American incur­sion into Spanish‑held Florida. He served as seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837.

 

Jazz Musical style based on improvisation within a band format, combining African traditions of repe­tition, call and response, and strong beat with Eu­ropean structure.

 

Jefferson, Thomas The primary author of the Decla­ration of Independence, the first secretary of state, and the third president of the United States. As president, he was responsible for the Louisiana Purchase and the Embargo of 1807, which sought to end British and French interference with American shipping.

 

Johnny Reb This appellation‑was used to refer to common soldiers servin~{:onfederate armies during the Civil War. See Billy Yank.

 

Joint Stock Trading Companies These companies were given the right to develop trade between Eng­land and certain geographic regions, such as Russia or India. Investors would pool their capital, in return for shares of stock, to underwrite trading ventures. One such company, the Virginia Company, failed to secure profits for its investors but laid the basis for the first major English colony in the Americas.

 

Judicial Review The power of the courts to determine the constitutionality of acts of other branches of government and to declare unconstitutional acts null and void.

 

Judiciary Act of 1801 Passed by the Federalists after they had lost control of Congress in the election of 1800, the act reduced the size of the Supreme Court, created a new set of circuit courts, and increased the number of district court judges. The Jefferson­ian Republicans repealed the act in 1801.

 

Kaiser, Henry J. Industrialist who epitomized the close relationship between government and indus­try in the West. His shipyards, financed by govern­ment loans and bolstered by cost‑plus government contracts, employed close to 300,000 Californians.

 

Kansas‑Nebraska Act Controversial 1854 legislation that opened Kansas and Nebraska to white settlement, repealed the Compromise of 1820, and led oppo­nents to form the Republican party.

 

Kennedy, Robert After an early public life as a com­mitted Cold Warrior, Kennedy ran for the Democ­ratic nomination in 1968 as a peace candidate rep­resentative of young liberals. His assassination while on the campaign trail helped create the dis­enchantment of many young Americans with the political process.

 

 

Khrushchev, Nikita Personable Soviet premier dur­ing Eisenhower's presidential term. Khrushchev condemned Stalin's purges and welcomed a melt­ing of the Cold War, although he crushed a 1956 democratic uprising in Hungary.

 

Kissinger, Henry The national security advisor to President Nixon, the Harvard‑educated German Jewish immigrant was a staunch anti‑Communist. He was Nixon's closest associate on matters of foreign policy.

 

Knights of Labor A labor organization founded in 1869, it called for the unity of all workers, rejected industrial capitalism, and favored cooperatively owned businesses but was discredited by such la­bor violence as the Haymarket Square riot and did not survive the depression of the 1890s.

 

Know Nothing Party An anti‑foreign, anti‑Catholic political party that arose following massive Irish and Catholic immigration during the late 1840s. The Know Nothing party replaced the Whigs as the second largest party in New England and some other states between 1853 and 1856.

 

Ku Klux Klan A secret organization founded in the southern states during Reconstruction to terrorize and intimidate former slaves and prevent them from voting or holding public office. Officially dis­banded in 1869, a second anti‑black, anti‑Catholic, and anti‑Semitic Klan emerged in 1915 that aimed to preserve "Americanism."

 

Laissez‑faire An economic theory based upon the ideas of Adam Smith, it contended that in a free economy self‑interest would lead individuals to act in ways that benefited society as a whole and therefore government should not intervene.

 

Large Policy Bold foreign policy put forth by Henry Cabot Lodge and others, advocating a canal through the Central American isthmus and a strong American naval presence in the Caribbean and Pa­cific.

 

League of Nations Point Fourteen of Wilson's Fourteen Points, the proposal to establish an inter­national organization to guarantee the territorial integrity of independent nations.

Lend‑Lease Act The program by which the United States provided arms and supplies to the Allies in World War II before joining the fighting.

 

Liberty Party An antislavery political party founded in 1839.

 

Liluokalani, Queen Rising to power in Hawaii in 1891, she initiated a strong anti‑American policy. Her overthrow in 1893 by white islanders paved the way for ultimate American annexation in 1897.

 

Little Rock Crisis  Conflict in 1957 when governor Or­val Faubus sent the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the racial integration of Little Rock's Cen­tral High School. After a crucial delay, President Eisenhower federalized the National Guard troops and sent in 1000 paratroopers to foster the school's integration.

 

Loose Interpretation The view that the national gov­ernment has the power to create agencies or enact statutes to fulfill the powers granted by the U.S. Constitution.

 

Louverture, Toussaint The leader of the Haitian Rev­olution.

 

Loyal Nine This informal group of pro‑colonial rights leaders in Boston helped organize resistance against unwanted British policies, such as the Stamp Act. Working with more visible popular leaders like Samuel Adams and street leaders like Ebenezer Mackintosh, the Loyal Nine both planned and gave overall direction to controlled violent protests in defying the imperial will and protecting the community's interests in Boston during the 1760s.

 

Lusitania British ship carrying American passengers sunk by a German submarine on May 15, 1915.

 

MacArthur, General Douglas Bold, arrogant Ameri­can general celebrated for his successful amphibi­ous invasion at Inchon, on North Korean forces' rear. MacArthur's subsequent invasion into North Korea stalled, and President Truman removed him from command after his inflammatory, egomania­cal criticisms of America's containment policy.

 

Macon's Bill No. 2 An attempt to stop British and French interference with American trade.

 

Madison, James The Father of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights and a co‑founder of the Jefferson­ian Republican party, Madison served as president during the War of 1812.

 

Malcolm X Spokesman for the Nation of Islam, a black religious and political organization that ad­vocated black‑owned businesses and castigated "white devils." He achieved notoriety as a public speaker and recruiter of boxer Muhammad Ali to the organization. He left the Nation of Islam in 1964 to form the Organization of Afro‑American Unity in 1964, and was assassinated in 1965.

 

Manhattan Project The secret government program to develop an atomic bomb during World War II.

 

Mann, Horace The early nineteenth century's leading educational reformer, Mann led the fight for gov­ernment support for public schools in Massachu­setts.

 

Manumission The freeing or emancipation of chattel slaves by their owners, which became more com­mon in the upper South in the wake of so much talk during the American Revolution about human lib­erty. George Washington was among those planters who provided for the manumission of his slaves after the death of his wife Martha.

 

Marbury v. Madison This landmark 1803 Supreme Court decision, which established the principle of judicial review, marked the first time that the Court declared an act of Congress unconstitutional.

 

Maroons Escaped slaves who formed communities of runaways.

 

Marquis of Queensberry Rules Standardized boxing rules of the late nineteenth century, creating struc­tured three minute rounds with one minute rest pe­riods, outlawing wrestling throws and holds, and specifying the number of rounds.